Cultural, spiritual, and social links

Many ancient cultures in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Harappa, which developed along rivers, had a deep cultural, spiritual, and social connection to water. Thus, some ancient Eastern texts describe vertical and horizontal movements in water management. The knowledge system of horizontal movements mainly pertains to using water for irrigation and drinking and highlights a holistic understanding of the hydrological cycle as it operates near the Indus and the Ganga River system. The symbolic importance of the Ganga River, which is designated as India’s national river, extends beyond its geographical location.[i]

The narrative of the Ganga’s descent from the sky is a mythological representation of the water cycle which symbolically traces the river’s journey from its divine origins through celestial and terrestrial abodes. In Hindu mythology, the Ganga emerges from Lord Vishnu’s toe, cascades onto Lord Shiva’s matted locks, and then spreads across the terrestrial landscape. This representation encapsulates the dynamics of the water cycle, blending spiritual symbolism with natural phenomena.

Svarga, martya, and patala

All Vedas adhere to the mantra Somenādityaḥ Valinaḥ, which means sacred water is the power of the Sun” to sustain the living world. Within this framework, the vertical and horizontal movements of water encompass three cosmologies—Svarga (heaven), Martya (land), and Pātāla (underground)—which represent a holistic hydrological cycle. Svarga, symbolizing the sky and rains, embodies the atmospheric segment of the water cycle: clouds and precipitation falling to the earth. In contrast, Martya reflects the water flow across the land’s surface, including rivers, streams, and other bodies of water. Pātāla, on the other hand, represents groundwater systems. Likewise, the description of “Tripathāgāminī Gaṅgā” (the Ganga’s three flow paths) in Vārāhapurāṇa encapsulates this concept, illustrating water’s journey through three interconnected domains, from the sky to the land’s surface to underground (Gītā 15:1, Kathopaniṣad 2:31).

Sculpture of the descent of the Ganga at Mahabalipuram, Chennai

Source: https://www.theheritagelab.in/mahabalipuram-arjunas-penance-descent-of-ganga/

Most Vedic rituals incorporate three cosmologies: Śabdārtha (the literal meaning), Bhāvārtha (the symbolic meaning), and Satyārtha (the truth) (Bhāgavata Mahāpurāṇa 11:3:44). While a layperson with some knowledge of the Sanskrit language may appreciate the Śabdārtha of a ritual (Bhāgavata Mahāpurāṇa 11:5:6), unpacking its Bhāvārtha and satyartha requires much deeper inquiry (Bhāgavata Mahāpurāṇa 11:7:10). The following two examples, a Hindu worship ritual called Rudrī Pūjā (Rudramahotsav) and vegetation planting practices, illustrate micro-scale embodiments of the water cycle and environmental conservation.

Rudrī Pūjā and Jaladhārā

In the Hindu faith, Rudrī Pūjā incorporates Jaladhārā (water flow). During the puja, a copper bowl with a small hole in the bottom is set atop a tripod (Trikhuttī), which rests inside a larger bowl. A miniature Śivaliṅga is positioned directly beneath the hole of the smaller bowl at the lowest point of the larger bowl. Occasionally, the tripod is placed on a plate within the large bowl. The smaller bowl is filled with water, which flows through the hole, cascades over the top of the miniature Śivaliṅga, and collects in the larger bowl. As the puja progresses, the upper bowl empties and is manually replenished with more water, continuing until the puja concludes.

The literal meaning of Rudrī Pūjā is a traditional ritual, but the Bhāvārtha (symbolic) and Satyārtha (truth) interpretations of this practice are linked to the hydrological cycle. The fresh water in the bowl represents celestial water (precipitation), and the continuous flow of water through a small hole onto the head of the Śivaliṅga signifies the descent of the Ganga from the sky. Water flowing over the Śivaliṅga represents Martya, the land, while the water collected in the larger vessel symbolizes the Pātāla, or subsurface storage.

While the downward flow of water mirrors the natural course of rainfall, the manual effort of filling the upper bowl with water reflects the principle of Yajña, a conscious endeavor to align with nature’s rhythms. This symbolism in Rudrī Pūjā, actions that connect the sky, the land, and groundwater and thereby highlight the continuous flow of water within the hydrological cycle (Yajurveda 6:28, 16:64-66, 17:29-32, Gītā 3:14, Chāndogya Upaniṣada 5:4:1), embodies the ecological principles of water circulation, conservation, and regeneration.

Jaldhaara during Śivaliṅga                                                                                     Hydrological cycle

Bar, pipal, chautari and ponds

The philosophy of nature conservation is reflected in the practices of planting trees, particularly the bar (Ficus bengalensis) and pipal (Ficus religiosa), building stone chautari around them, and digging ponds adjacent to the chautari. Chautari is built alongside mountain trails and a shallow pond lined with stone masonry is built at a slightly lower elevation. These ponds collect rainwater and facilitate recharge (Padhmapurāṇa, Sṛsṭikhanḍa ep 57).  Together, these practices reinforce the pursuit of sustainable environmental conservation practices rooted in spiritual wisdom.

Planting bar and pipal and constructing chautari and ponds represent a nuanced yet practical approach to conserving landscapes and water. Chautari are places of rest for travelers and spaces where communities gather. The trees provide shade from the sun, intercept rainfall, and facilitate evapotranspiration. Moreover, they play a crucial role in carbon sequestration and as abodes for birds.

Ponds strategically located adjacent to chautari serve multiple ecological functions, including harvesting rainwater, facilitating infiltration, and enhancing groundwater storage. The ponds, as micro-wetlands also ensure the sustainability of spring flows at lower elevations providing essential agricultural and drinking water services. They also serve as water points for livestock while collectively serving as kidneys of the landscape.

Those who are unable to participate in constructing a chautari can nonetheless offer water from the pond to the sacred tree to please Marudagaṇa (Śatapatha Brahmana 4:3:3:6) and Saturn (Lord Shani), the god of time and agriculture. These practices, which are practical and environmentally sensitive management techniques, perhaps originated to maintain an ecological balance in the hills of Nepal including, for example, cities like Pokhara.[ii] In Nepal’s Tarai Madesh as well as India, bar and pipal are revered sacred species of trees.

Bar and pipal thrive at a chautari

Dialogue between the ancient and the modern streams of knowledge

The expression “water is life,” which has been passed down through generations across all cultures, faiths, and knowledge systems, reflects the profound and essential truth that the water cycle is fundamental to life, livelihoods, and well-being. Over the years, research into farming methods, crop cultivation, irrigation, soil management, energy production, and freshwater ecosystems has recognized these practices as imperative for managing water effectively. The Global Commission on the Economics of Water (GCEW), established in 2022, acknowledges that a stable hydrological cycle is a global common good and a crucial starting point for addressing systemic water crises.[iii]

In Nepal, the time-tested practice of stewarding environment is often sacrificed for modern ways.  The results include major landscape-level changes, including the depletion of hill springs, which serve as sources of drinking water and small-scale irrigation for millions. The depletion of springs is also associated with changes brought about by a) improperly built roads, b) the conversion of forest and agricultural land into real estate and other uses, c) disruptions of groundwater by seismic activities and earthquakes, d) more intense and short-duration monsoon precipitation than in the past, e) extended winter droughts f) degradation of ponds and wetlands g) the pumping of hill groundwater aquifers to meet irrigation and drinking water needs, h) the lining of earthen irrigation canals, and i) the building of tunnels for hydropower projects.[iv] The increasing rates of construction of highway tunnels will have implications on landscape-level water dynamics. To understand and take ameliorative actions to conserve spring sheds, a deep systemic analysis of the impacts of the above actions on the flow dynamics of hill landscapes is needed.

By blending spiritual symbolism with practical environmental knowledge, the bar-pipal-chautari-pond ecosystem, for example, demonstrates a holistic landscape management strategy that connects cultural traditions with ecological principles. This strategy and others like it also integrate social awareness of environmental conservation and can therefore support adaptive actions and help to build climate resilience as a practical measure. Nepal’s municipalities can act together and adopt the wisdom of the bar-pipal-chautari-pond practice in their pursuit of an approach that balances conservation with development.

Developing corridors of trees, including the bar-pipal-chautari-pond ecosystem, along river banks to function as a residence for birds and other terrestrial wildlife can be one of the starting points towards achieving the objective of balancing conservation and development.[v] The way forward needs not be a zero-sum game: development vs. environmental conservation. A cautious and sensitive design can meet both objectives. This is where citizen scientists can help. Empowered by the synthesized knowledge that connects ancient wisdom and modern insights, they can become local change-makers who can bring ecological understanding to practical uses. They can support effective climate education, community engagement, and environmental stewardship as well as preserve cultural heritage and traditional knowledge systems.

Dialogue between natural and social scientists and scholars of ancient texts can help begin unpacking the water management knowledge embedded within traditional practices and the logic behind them, revealing their Satyārtha, or truth, -level depth. The insights thus derived can help communicate challenges and suggest solutions that may become broadly accepted and integrated among communal practices designed to conserve water.  To help address the ongoing water crisis, therefore, everyone needs to join hands to enhance the generation, application, updating, and dissemination of a system of integrated knowledge involving natural science, social science, and traditional and indigenous streams.[vi]

Notes

[i] Two major tributaries, the Alaknanda and the Bhagirathi, converge at Devprayag to form the Ganga, which flows through the plains of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal before entering Bangladesh as the Padma. It merges with the Brahmaputra and Meghna, ultimately flowing into the Bay of Bengal. The Ganga receives water from its tributaries in Nepal and from rivers originating in the Vindhya Range. In the February 2025 newsletter of India Rivers Forum Manu Bhatnagar presents a note about the Ganga’s mentions at various places across history. https://indiariversforum.substack.com/p/february-2025?utm_source=post-email-title&publication_id=2505701&post_id=157307839&utm_campaign=email-post-title&isFreemail=true&r=2p43fe&triedRedirect=true&utm_medium=email

[ii] In 1994, a survey of chautaris in Pokhara Municipality reported their number as 406 (700 +, including bar-pipal). Today, approximately 300 chautaris remain. For details, see Kul Raj Chalise (2000), Social Marketing Approach to Conserve Ficus Religiosa: Links between Cultures and Biodiversity, proceedings of the Cultures and Biodiversity Congress, July 20-30, Yunan Ed Xu Jianchu.

[iii]  See https://economicsofwater.watercommission.org/report/economics-of-water.pdf downloaded on 3rd January. NASA scientists use nearly 20 years of observations to show that the global water cycle is shifting in unprecedented ways https://www.nasa.gov/missions/gpm/nasa-scientists-find-new-human-caused-shifts-in-global-water-cycle/?utm_source=TWITTER&utm_medium=NASAClimate&utm_campaign=NASASocial&linkId=735945483 (6^th February 2025P).

[iv] For discussion on the issues of springs see, NITI Aayog Working Group (2017) Inventory and Revival of Springs in Himalayas for Water Security  NITI Aayog Government of India Ministry of Science & Technology Department of Science & Technology  December, and  Thapa, Bhumika, Bhattarai, Chiranjibi, Dahal, Ngamindra, Tiwari, Sushma, and Jacobsen, Dean (2023) Drying of Springs in the Himalayan Region of Nepal: Perspectives of Local Government Leaders on Causes, Consequences, and    Conservation Efforts (2023) Mountain Research and Development, 43(4) Published By: International Mountain Society: https://doi.org/10.1659/mrd.2023.00007.

[v] Wetlands are integral to the region’s ecological history. Under threat from untreated sewage, haphazard urbanization, and encroachment, they need to be conserved, as they are called the planet. For general discussion on challenges of wetlands see   https://www.icimod.org/wetlands-action-for-people-and-nature.

[vi] In Basic Water Science (2002), Ajaya Dixit made a case for the assimilation and synthesis of natural and social sciences as new water knowledge. In 2002, Bandyopadhyay Jayanta and Sayanangshu Modak suggested considering local and indigenous knowledge along with natural and social science as a system of integrated knowledge for stewarding water. See. Governing the ‘Water Tower of Asia’: The Case for a System of Integrated Knowledge for the Hindu Kush Himalaya, March, Observer Research Foundation 2022.